TODAM2: A model for the storage and retrieval of item, associative, and serial-order information.
Psychological ReviewPublished 1 January 1993
Bennet B. Murdock
Citations266
SJR quartileQ1
SJR score3.06
SNIP2.88
Generate an AI Snapshot to get a quick, structured summary of this paper.
Study Snapshot
ObjectiveStudy objective
MethodsResearch methodology
PopulationPopulation studied
Sample sizeSample sizes
OutcomesStudy outcomes here
ResultsStudy results comes here
LimitationsResearch study limitations comes here
A concise AI-generated summary of the paper will appear here once you click Generate AI Snapshot.
TL;DR
An extended version of the convolution-correlation memory model TODAM (theory of distributed associative memory) is presented that not only eliminates some of the inadequacies of previous versions but also provides a unified treatment of item, associative, and serial-order information.
Abstract
This article presents an extended version of the convolution-correlation memory model TODAM (theory of distributed associative memory) that not only eliminates some of the inadequacies of previous versions but also provides a unified treatment of item, associative, and serial-order information. The chunking model extended the basic convolution-correlation formalism by using multiple convolutions, n-grams (multiple autoassociations of sums of item vectors), and chunks (sums of n-grams) to account for chunking and serial organization. TODAM2 extends the chunking model by including rn-grams (reduced n-grams), labels, and "lebals" (the involution or mirror image of a label) to provide a general model for episodic memory. For paired associates, it is assumed that subjects store only labeled n-grams and lebaled rn-grams. It is shown that the model is broadly consistent with a number of major empirical paired-associate and serial-order effects.
Keywords
Computer ScienceNeuroscience
Psychological ReviewThe magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information.
17,276 Citations1994George Miller
About some experiments that tested how accurately people can assign numbers to the magnitudes of various aspects of a stimulus, and since the results are analyzed in terms of the concepts of information theory, I shall have to preface my discussion with a few remarks about this theory.
The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivationHuman Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes
7,003 Citations1968R. C. Atkinson, Richard M. Shiffrin
This chapter presents a general theoretical framework of human memory and describes the results of a number of experiments designed to test specific models that can be derived from the overall theory.
The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivationThe Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research and Theory
6,039 Citations2010
Perception and Communication
4,735 Citations2016
The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivationCatastrophic Interference in Connectionist Networks: The Sequential Learning Problem
3,578 Citations1989Michael McCloskey, Neal J. Cohen
This chapter discusses the catastrophic interference in connectionist networks, and the simulation results demonstrate only that interference is catastrophic in some specific networks.
Psychological ReviewConnectionist models of recognition memory: Constraints imposed by learning and forgetting functions.
877 Citations1990Roger Ratcliff
The problems discussed provide limitations on connectionist models applied to human memory and in tasks where information to be learned is not all available during learning.
Psychological ReviewRecognition and retrieval processes in free recall.
837 Citations1972John R. Anderson, Gordon H. Bower
A critique of two popular "strength" theories, one which relates recall and recognition to the strength of one and the same memory trace, and another which relates only recognition memory to a similar strength measure are offered.
Psychological ReviewInterference and forgetting.
824 Citations1957Benton J. Underwood
There is a general agreement that interference among tasks must produce a sizable proportion of forgetting and that most forgetting must be a function of the learning of tasks which interfere with that which has already been learned.
Perception & PsychophysicsPrecategorical acoustic storage (PAS)
774 Citations1969Robert G. Crowder, John Morton
Memory & CognitionModality effects and the structure of short-term verbal memory
640 Citations1989Catherine G. Penney
It is shown that assumptions about the structure of short-term verbal memory are shown to account for many of the observed effects of presentation morality.
Memory & CognitionThe mirror effect in recognition memory
494 Citations1985Murray Glanzer, John K. Adams
A survey demonstrates that the mirror effect in recognition memory holds for several types of variables (ways to classify stimuli)—word frequency, concreteness, meaningfulness, and others.
American Journal of Physics<i>Geometrical</i> <i>Methods</i> <i>of</i> <i>Mathematical</i> <i>Physics</i>
478 Citations1982B. F. Schutz, Mark Peterson
The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivationRepetition and Memory
373 Citations1976Douglas L. Hintzman
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal BehaviorRecall as a search process
369 Citations1963Douwe B. Yntema, Frances P. Trask
Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and CognitionSpacing effects in memory: Evidence for a two-process account.
327 Citations1989Robert L. Greene
Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and CognitionThe mirror effect in recognition memory: Data and theory.
319 Citations1990Murray Glanzer, John K. Adams
Five experiments that further support and extended the generality of the mirror effect are reported and a theory of the effect and predictions that derive from the theory are presented.
NeuropsychologiaFurther analysis of the prior learning effect in amnesic patients
290 Citations1978Elizabeth K. Warrington, Lawrence Weiskrantz
Theories of amnesia based on an inability to constrain competing responses are not supported by the findings, and therefore at least some forms of an interference hypothesis will not account for the results, which are likely to reflect some other form of an underlying retrieval deficit.
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal BehaviorTemporal changes in interference
265 Citations1968Leo Postman, Karen Stark +1 more
Psychological ReviewA theory of order relations in perceptual matching.
263 Citations1981Roger Ratcliff
Psychology Press eBooksRelating Theory and Data
244 Citations2014William E. Hockley, Stephan Lewandowsky
Memory & CognitionList length and the time course of recognition in immediate memory
228 Citations1976Adam V. Reed
The response signal method of Reed (1973) was used to study the time-course of list membership recognition after 2 sec of uncontrolled rehearsal, with lists of one, two, and four consonants.
Psychological ReviewThe regularities of recognition memory.
222 Citations1993Murray Glanzer, John K. Adams +2 more
Three regularities in recognition memory are described with supporting data: the mirror effect, the order of receiver operating characteristic slopes, and the symmetry of movement of underlying distributions and the derivation from attention/likelihood theory is demonstrated.
Quarterly Journal of Experimental PsychologySuccessive Responses to Simultaneous Stimuli
215 Citations1956D. Ε. Broadbent
Bulletin of the Psychonomic SocietyRelation between recognition and recognition failure of recallable words
146 Citations1975Endel Tulving, Sandor Wiseman
The data support the statement that recognition failure of recallable words appears to be a general phenomenon that, as far as is known, always occurs whenever recognition is imperfect.
Journal of Mathematical PsychologyGlobal matching: A comparison of the SAM, Minerva II, Matrix, and TODAM models
126 Citations1989Michael S. Humphreys, Ray Pike +2 more
This prediction is shown to be unaffected by the inclusion of additional processes into the models such as variable encoding, cue weights, forgetting, single item matches, context, and background memories and to test the global matching assumption rigorously.
Journal of Experimental Psychology GeneralIntegrated retrieval cues as a mechanism for priming in retrieval from memory.
121 Citations1989Barbara Anne Dosher, Glenda Rosedale
Journal of Mathematical PsychologySome targets for mathematical psychology
114 Citations1975W. K. Estes
These problems might be alleviated by recognition of the complementary aspects of mathematical and computer simulation approaches to psychological theory and by a shift of emphasis from tactics to strategy in the construction and evaluation of models of both types.
Medical Entomology and ZoologyHuman Information Processing: Measures, Mechanisms, and Models
103 Citations1990Douglas Vickers, Philip L. Smith
Sensory Mechanisms (Contributors): H.A. Badcock H.H. Fukuda, K.Kani, Y. Okamoto V.I. Manyam, J.J. Jansen, R.W. van der Zwan, S.L. Massaro S.E. Roskam, G.P. Petrusic.
Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and CognitionOverlearning and the feeling of knowing.
97 Citations1982Thomas O. Nelson, Jacob Leonesio +3 more
Medical Entomology and ZoologyCurrent Issues in Cognitive Processes : The Tulane Flowerree Symposia on Cognition
92 Citations1989Chizuko Izawa
The construction-integration model: A framework for studying memory for text.
90 Citations1991Walter Kintsch, David M. Welsch
Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and CognitionEffects of exact repetition and conceptual repetition on free recall and primed word-fragment completion.
87 Citations1992Henry L. Roediger, Bradford H. Challis
Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and CognitionItem effects in recognition and fragment completion: Contingency relations vary for different subsets of words.
75 Citations1990Douglas L. Hintzman, Ann L. Hartry
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal BehaviorSuffix effects manifest and concealed: Further evidence for a 20-second echo
65 Citations1980Michael J. Watkins, Amy K. Todres
Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and CognitionAnalysis of the list-strength effect.
60 Citations1993Bennet B. Murdock, Michael J. Kahana
NatureRelative Retention in Immediate Memory determined by the Missing Scan Method
47 Citations1963Herman Buschke
The serial error curve generated by retrieval, which shows the distribution of errors of omission in retrieval according to the serial position of presented material, appears to reflect characteristics of retrieval as well as of storage.
Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and CognitionAssociative interference effects in recognition and recall.
46 Citations1990Alison M. Dyne, Michael S. Humphreys +2 more
The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivationShort-Term Memory for Associations
42 Citations1989Bennet B. Murdock, William E. Hockley
ScienceRetention in Immediate Memory Estimated without Retrieval
41 Citations1963Herman Buschke
A missing scan of the missing member of a set depends upon retention of the other members presented and reveals greater retention than does a digit span and better retention of later than earlier presentations.
Memory & CognitionRecognition of multiple-item probes
37 Citations1987Steven E. Clark, Richard M. Shiffrin
This study contrasted models in which familiarity or strength is the sole basis for recognition judgments with models incorporating retrieval of specific information in a recall-like process and examined the possibility that an item’s “strength” is determined in part by the match between the verbal encoding contexts at study and at test.
Cognitive PsychologySerial learning: Identification of subjective subsequences
35 Citations1974Edwin Martin, David L. Noreen
It is concluded that ordinary serial learning cannot be represented by traditional continuous-process theories, but instead must be treated by an organizational model.
Journal of Mathematical PsychologyExpectation and variance of item resemblance distributions in a convolution-correlation model of distributed memory
35 Citations1988Elke U. Weber
The applicability of distributed memory models that use convolution and correlation as their encoding and retrieval operations are extended by providing analytic derivations of the expressions needed to apply such models to a wide range of experimental paradigms.
Biological CyberneticsSome algebraic relations between involutions, convolutions and correlations, with applications to holographic memories
35 Citations2008Peter H. Schönemann
Memory & CognitionThe replacement effect: Repeating some items while replacing others
34 Citations1988Bennet B. Murdock, Mary Lamon
Three experiments on recognition learning tested for the existence of a replacement effect, and the most satisfactory version was one based on probabilistic encoding of features in the item vectors, and it seemed capable of explaining most aspects of the data.
Psychological ResearchOrder of recall, output interference, and the modality effect
30 Citations1979Lars‐Göran Nilsson, Edmund Wright +1 more
The American Journal of PsychologyCoordinate Organization: The Holistic Representation of Word Pairs
27 Citations1981George Mandler, Jan C. Rabinowitz +1 more
Journal of Mathematical PsychologyItem and associative information in a distributed memory model
25 Citations1992Bennet B. Murdock
The main purpose of the present paper is to present the necessary derivations so the TODAM model can be applied to item recognition, pair recognition, and cued recall in a single-trial or list-learning paradigm.
Memory & CognitionAcquisition of information from rapidly presented verbal and nonverbal stimuli
19 Citations1974Geoffrey R. Loftus
The results of Experiments I and II suggest qualitative encoding differences between verbal vs nonverbal stimuli in recognition memory for rapidly presented stimuli are suggested.
British Journal of PsychologyBINOCULAR FIXATION AND IMMEDIATE MEMORY*
19 Citations1961Harold Sampson, Paul Spong
Results suggest a central integrating mechanism of limited capacity in recall, and that temporal grouping of responses is symptomatic of this limited capacity when the mechanism is taxed.
Memory & CognitionOutput and retrieval interference in the missing-number task
17 Citations1992Jeffrey A. Hadley, Alice F. Healy +1 more
Three experiments are reported that represent a reexamination of the missing-number method of estimating short-term memory span, and retrieval interference was implicated to explain the first-choice-superiority found in Experiments 1 and 3.
Memory & CognitionAssociative and serial-order information: Different modes of operation?
16 Citations1984Bennet B. Murdock, Patricia E. Franklin
Two versions of a distributed-memory model, one for associative information and one for serial-order information, leave open the question of whether there are two different modes of operation or only one, and differential predictions emerge when one considers the role of item information.
From Physical Concept to Mathematical Structure: An Introduction to Theoretical Physics
10 Citations1981L. E. H. Trainor, Mark B. Wise
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal BehaviorInterpresentation effects in paired-associate learning
9 Citations1968Robert C. Calfee
Journal of Mathematical PsychologyDerivations for the Chunking Model
8 Citations1993Bennet B. Murdock
This paper presents the necessary derivations to compute signal-to-noise ratios in terms of the standard TODAM parameters, and quantitative applications of the model to a variety of memory tasks involving recognition, recall, and redintegration are now possible.