Spacing and repetition effects in human memory: application of the SAM model
Cognitive SciencePublished 19 May 2003Open access
Jos M. Raaijmakers
Citations143
SJR quartileQ1
SJR score1.13
SNIP1.32
Generate an AI Snapshot to get a quick, structured summary of this paper.
Study Snapshot
ObjectiveStudy objective
MethodsResearch methodology
PopulationPopulation studied
Sample sizeSample sizes
OutcomesStudy outcomes here
ResultsStudy results comes here
LimitationsResearch study limitations comes here
A concise AI-generated summary of the paper will appear here once you click Generate AI Snapshot.
TL;DR
A new model for spacing based on the SAM theory of memory developed by Raaijmakers and Shiffrin is presented and it is shown that the model predicts many standard findings including the lack of a spacing effect for the recall of at least one of two items each presented once.
Abstract
Spacing between study trials of an item increases the probability that item will be recalled. This article presents a new model for spacing based on the SAM theory of memory developed by Raaijmakers and Shiffrin (1980, 1981). The model is a generalization of the SAM model as applied to interference paradigms (Mensink & Raaijmakers, 1988, 1989) and may be viewed as a mathematical version of the Component-Levels theory proposed by Glenberg (1979). It is assumed that on a second presentation of an item, information is added to an existing trace if the episodic memory image corresponding to that item is retrieved. If it is not retrieved, a new image is stored. It is shown that the model predicts many standard findings including the lack of a spacing effect for the recall of at least one of two items each presented once (Ross & Landauer, 1978).
Keywords
PsychologyComputer ScienceNeuroscience
The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivationHuman Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes
7,003 Citations1968R. C. Atkinson, Richard M. Shiffrin
This chapter presents a general theoretical framework of human memory and describes the results of a number of experiments designed to test specific models that can be derived from the overall theory.
The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivationThe Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research and Theory
6,039 Citations2010
Computer Physics CommunicationsMinuit - a system for function minimization and analysis of the parameter errors and correlations
3,237 Citations1975F. James, M. Roos
Psychological ReviewSearch of associative memory.
1,602 Citations1981Jeroen G. Raaijmakers, Richard M. Shiffrin
Search of associative memory posits cue-dependent probabilistic sampling and recovery from an associative network, but the network is specified as a retrieval structure rather than a storage structure.
The American Journal of PsychologyPrinciples of Learning and Memory
1,337 Citations1977Bennet B. Murdock, Robert G. Crowder
Psychonomic Bulletin & ReviewA model for recognition memory: REM—retrieving effectively from memory
962 Citations1997Richard M. Shiffrin, Mark Steyvers
A new model of recognition memory is reported, placed within, and introduces, a more elaborate theory that is being developed to predict the phenomena of explicit and implicit, and episodic and generic, memory.
Memory & CognitionAssociative retrieval processes in free recall
617 Citations1996Michael J. Kahana
A new method for analyzing associative processes in free recall is presented, which illustrates the importance of association by contiguity by examining conditional response probabilities in the output sequence.
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal BehaviorThe situation with respect to the spacing of repetitions and memory
522 Citations1970Arthur W. Melton
Memory & CognitionComponent-levels theory of the effects of spacing of repetitions on recall and recognition
448 Citations1979Arthur M. Glenberg
A theory of spacing effects is described that uses the same principles to account for both facilitatory and inhibitory effects of spacing in a number of memory paradigms.
Psychological ReviewA model for interference and forgetting.
435 Citations1988Ger-Jan Mensink, Jeroen G. Raaijmakers
The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivationSAM: A Theory of Probabilistic Search of Associative Memory
435 Citations1980Jeroen G. W. Raaijmakers, Richard M. Shiffrin
This chapter discusses probabilistic search of associative memory, which introduces a theory of retrieval from long-term memory and presents a number of applications to data from paradigms involving free recall, categorizedfree recall, and paired-associate recall.
Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and CognitionContextual variability and serial position effects in free recall.
404 Citations1999Marc W. Howard, Michael J. Kahana
The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivationRepetition and Memory
373 Citations1976Douglas L. Hintzman
Theoretical Implications of the Spacing Effect 1
369 Citations2024Douglas L. Hintzman
Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and CognitionSpacing effects in memory: Evidence for a two-process account.
327 Citations1989Robert L. Greene
Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and CognitionList-strength effect: I. Data and discussion.
316 Citations1990Roger Ratcliff, Steven E. Clark +1 more
It is suggested that different retrieval operations underlie recall and recognition, as in the SAM model of Gillund and Shiffrin (1984), which can be made to fit the results with certain relatively minor modifications.
ErgonomicsThe Influence of Length and Frequency of Training Session on the Rate of Learning to Type
284 Citations1978Alan Baddeley, D. J. A. LONGMAN
Four groups of postmen were trained to type alpha-numeric code material using a conventional typewriter keyboard, and it is suggested that where operationally feasible, keyboard training should be distributed over time rather than massed.
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal BehaviorMonotonic and nonmonotonic lag effects in paired-associate and recognition memory paradigms
279 Citations1976Arthur M. Glenberg
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal BehaviorIntraserial repetition and coding processes in free recall
243 Citations1969Stephen Madigan
Memory & CognitionList length and the time course of recognition in immediate memory
228 Citations1976Adam V. Reed
The response signal method of Reed (1973) was used to study the time-course of list membership recognition after 2 sec of uncontrolled rehearsal, with lists of one, two, and four consonants.
Memory & CognitionSingle-trace fragility theory of memory dynamics
228 Citations1974Wayne A. Wickelgren
Data are presented to indicate that interference is independent of the interval between original and interpolated learning, that nonassociative recency discriminability approaches a limit at about 30 min, and that the decay rate of long-term retention in amnesic patients is the same as in normal Ss.
PsychometrikaApplication of a Model to Paired-Associate Learning
209 Citations1961Gordon H. Bower
The proposal is made to consider a paired-associate item as becoming conditioned to its correct response in all-or-none fashion, and that prior to this conditioning event the subject guesses responses at random to an unlearned item.
Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and CognitionRetention of Spanish vocabulary over 8 years.
208 Citations1987Harry P. Bahrick, Elizabeth Phelphs
Journal of Mathematical PsychologyTrace resistance and the decay of long-term memory
187 Citations1972Wayne A. Wickelgren
Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and CognitionList-strength effect: II. Theoretical mechanisms.
177 Citations1990Richard M. Shiffrin, Roger Ratcliff +1 more
Psychological ReviewSearch of associative memory.
151 Citations1981Jeroen G. Raaijmakers, Richard M. Shiffrin
Cognitive PsychologyMemory without organization: Properties of a model with random storage and undirected retrieval
150 Citations1975Thomas K. Landauer
A very simple spatial model of memory storage and retrieval is described, analyzed, and discussed that consists of a three-dimensional space containing a large number of homogeneously distributed loci at which data may be stored.
Cognition and InstructionContextual Enrichment and Distribution of Practice in the Classroom
134 Citations1984Steven M. Smith, Ernst Z. Rothkopf
Psychological ReviewA Bayesian model for implicit effects in perceptual identification.
71 Citations2001Lael J. Schooler, Richard M. Shiffrin +1 more
In perceptual identification studies reported in R. Ratcliff and G. McKoon (1997), the influence of prior study was greatest when words were presented most briefly and when forced-choice targets and foils were most similar.
Journal of Mathematical PsychologyA model for contextual fluctuation
71 Citations1989Ger-Jan Mensink, Jeroen G. W. Raaijmakers
Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and CognitionRetrieval strategies in recall of natural categories and categorized lists.
70 Citations1986Scott D. Gronlund, Richard M. Shiffrin
An extension of the search of associative memory (SAM) model of Raaijmakers and Shiffrin was developed to explain results; the new model postulates attention sharing among probe cues and the use of idiosyncratic strategies for free recall from natural categories.
Memory & CognitionWord repetitions in sentence recognition
62 Citations1991Kevin S. Murnane, Richard M. Shiffrin
A sentence trace model was fit to the data, supporting the account of Shiffrin et al. (1990) and supporting an account of word and sentence recognition in which activation is summed for representations of all list items.
Journal of Mathematical PsychologyReinforcement-test intervals in paired-associate learning
54 Citations1971Joseph L. Young
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal BehaviorMemory for at least one of two items: Test and failure of several theories of spacing effects
52 Citations1978Brian H. Ross, Thomas K. Landauer
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal BehaviorSpacing repetitions and solving problems are not the same
51 Citations1981Arthur M. Glenberg, Steven M. Smith
Models of Memory
38 Citations2002Jeroen G. W. Raaijmakers, Richard M. Shiffrin
It is argued that models based on a Bayesian or rational approach (ACT-R, REM) may provide a unified framework for explicit as well as implicit memory, and that these models specify basic mechanisms rather than simple equations that describe the data in a specific task.
Psychonomic ScienceInterval between item repetitions and free recall memory
13 Citations1967Thomas K. Landauer
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal BehaviorQuantitative prediction of spacing effects in learning
7 Citations1977Adam V. Reed
Psychological ReviewA Bayesian model for implicit effects in perceptual identification.
5 Citations2001Lael J. Schooler, Richard M. Shiffrin +1 more