Linguistic Structure Prediction
Synthesis lectures on human language technologiesPublished 1 January 2011
Noah A. Smith
Citations101
SJR quartileQ3
SJR score0.12
SNIP0.00
Generate an AI Snapshot to get a quick, structured summary of this paper.
Study Snapshot
ObjectiveStudy objective
MethodsResearch methodology
PopulationPopulation studied
Sample sizeSample sizes
OutcomesStudy outcomes here
ResultsStudy results comes here
LimitationsResearch study limitations comes here
A concise AI-generated summary of the paper will appear here once you click Generate AI Snapshot.
Abstract
A major part of natural language processing now depends on the use of text data to build linguistic analyzers. We consider statistical, computational approaches to modeling linguistic structure. We se
Keywords
Computer Science
Proceedings of the IEEEGradient-based learning applied to document recognition
58,219 Citations1998Yann LeCun, Léon Bottou +2 more
This paper reviews various methods applied to handwritten character recognition and compares them on a standard handwritten digit recognition task, and Convolutional neural networks are shown to outperform all other techniques.
IEEE Transactions on Automatic ControlA new look at the statistical model identification
50,732 Citations1974Hirotugu Akaike
Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series B (Statistical Methodology)Maximum Likelihood from Incomplete Data Via the <i>EM</i> Algorithm
49,657 Citations1977A. P. Dempster, N. M. Laird +1 more
Machine LearningSupport-Vector Networks
33,035 Citations1995Corinna Cortes, Vladimir Vapnik
High generalization ability of support-vector networks utilizing polynomial input transformations is demonstrated and the performance of the support- vector network is compared to various classical learning algorithms that all took part in a benchmark study of Optical Character Recognition.
Communications of the ACMMapReduce
18,538 Citations2008Jay B. Dean, Sanjay Ghemawat
This presentation explains how the underlying runtime system automatically parallelizes the computation across large-scale clusters of machines, handles machine failures, and schedules inter-machine communication to make efficient use of the network and disks.
PubMedRegularization Paths for Generalized Linear Models via Coordinate Descent.
13,977 Citations2010Jerome H. Friedman, Trevor Hastie +1 more
ScholarlyCommons (University of Pennsylvania)Conditional Random Fields: Probabilistic Models for Segmenting and Labeling Sequence Data
12,978 Citations2001John Lafferty, Andrew McCallum +1 more
This work presents iterative parameter estimation algorithms for conditional random fields and compares the performance of the resulting models to HMMs and MEMMs on synthetic and natural-language data.
Naval Research Logistics QuarterlyThe Hungarian method for the assignment problem
12,574 Citations1955Harold W. Kuhn
IEEE Transactions on Systems Science and CyberneticsA Formal Basis for the Heuristic Determination of Minimum Cost Paths
12,265 Citations1968Peter Hart, Nils J. Nilsson +1 more
How heuristic information from the problem domain can be incorporated into a formal mathematical theory of graph searching is described and an optimality property of a class of search strategies is demonstrated.
The London Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of ScienceLIII. <i>On lines and planes of closest fit to systems of points in space</i>
11,670 Citations1901Karl Pearson
This paper is concerned with the construction of planes of closest fit to systems of points in space and the relationships between these planes and the planes themselves.
Foundations of statistical natural language processing
9,996 Citations1999Christopher D. Manning, Hinrich Schütze
The MIT Press eBooksLearning with Kernels
9,548 Citations2001Bernhard Schölkopf, Alexander J. Smola
Learning with Kernels provides an introduction to SVMs and related kernel methods that provide all of the concepts necessary to enable a reader equipped with some basic mathematical knowledge to enter the world of machine learning using theoretically well-founded yet easy-to-use kernel algorithms.
Mathematical ProgrammingOn the limited memory BFGS method for large scale optimization
8,529 Citations1989Dong C. Liu, Jorge Nocedal
The numerical tests indicate that the L-BFGS method is faster than the method of Buckley and LeNir, and is better able to use additional storage to accelerate convergence, and the convergence properties are studied to prove global convergence on uniformly convex problems.
Program electronic library and information systemsAn algorithm for suffix stripping
8,136 Citations1980Martin Porter
An algorithm for suffix stripping is described, which has been implemented as a short, fast program in BCPL, and performs slightly better than a much more elaborate system with which it has been compared.
Building a Large Annotated Corpus of English: The Penn Treebank
7,528 Citations1993Mitchell P. Marcus
Thumbs up?
6,987 Citations2002Bo Pang, Lillian Lee +1 more
This work considers the problem of classifying documents not by topic, but by overall sentiment, e.g., determining whether a review is positive or negative, and concludes by examining factors that make the sentiment classification problem more challenging.
now publishers, Inc. eBooksOpinion Mining and Sentiment Analysis
6,745 Citations2008Bo Pang, Lillian Lee
IEEE Transactions on Information TheoryError bounds for convolutional codes and an asymptotically optimum decoding algorithm
6,705 Citations1967Andrew J. Viterbi
The upper bound is obtained for a specific probabilistic nonsequential decoding algorithm which is shown to be asymptotically optimum for rates above R_{0} and whose performance bears certain similarities to that of sequential decoding algorithms.
Probabilistic graphical models : principles and techniques
6,434 Citations2009Daniel L. Koller, Nir Friedman
The framework of probabilistic graphical models, presented in this book, provides a general approach for causal reasoning and decision making under uncertainty, allowing interpretable models to be constructed and then manipulated by reasoning algorithms.
SIAM Journal on Scientific ComputingA Limited Memory Algorithm for Bound Constrained Optimization
6,000 Citations1995Richard H. Byrd, Peihuang Lu +2 more
An algorithm for solving large nonlinear optimization problems with simple bounds is described, based on the gradient projection method and uses a limited memory BFGS matrix to approximate the Hessian of the objective function.
AutomaticaModeling by shortest data description
5,944 Citations1978J. Rissanen
The number of digits it takes to write down an observed sequence x1,...,xN of a time series depends on the model with its parameters that one assumes to have generated the observed data.
TechnometricsMonte Carlo Statistical Methods
5,612 Citations2000Hoon Kim, Christian P. Robert +1 more
Neural ComputationTraining Products of Experts by Minimizing Contrastive Divergence
5,017 Citations2002Geoffrey E. Hinton
A product of experts (PoE) is an interesting candidate for a perceptual system in which rapid inference is vital and generation is unnecessary because it is hard even to approximate the derivatives of the renormalization term in the combination rule.
COMBINATORICAA new polynomial-time algorithm for linear programming
4,840 Citations1984Narendra Karmarkar
PsychometrikaNote on the Sampling Error of the Difference Between Correlated Proportions or Percentages
4,283 Citations1947Quinn McNemar
Two formulas are presented for judging the significance of the difference between correlated proportions and the chi square equivalent of one of the developed formulas.
Foundations of Logic Programming
4,159 Citations1984John W. Lloyd
Biological sequence analysis probabilistic models of proteins and nucleic acids
3,654 Citations2010Richard Durbin
Meeting of the Association for Computational LinguisticsThumbs Up or Thumbs Down? Semantic Orientation Applied to Unsupervised Classification of Reviews
3,654 Citations2002Peter Peter, Turney
Information and ControlLanguage identification in the limit
3,569 Citations1967Eric Gold
It was found that theclass of context-sensitive languages is learnable from an informant, but that not even the class of regular languages is learningable from a text.
Journal of the American Statistical AssociationHierarchical Dirichlet Processes
3,567 Citations2006Yee Whye Teh, Michael I. Jordan +2 more
This work considers problems involving groups of data where each observation within a group is a draw from a mixture model and where it is desirable to share mixture components between groups, and considers a hierarchical model, specifically one in which the base measure for the childDirichlet processes is itself distributed according to a Dirichlet process.
Recognizing contextual polarity in phrase-level sentiment analysis
3,379 Citations2005Theresa Wilson, Janyce Wiebe +1 more
A new approach to phrase-level sentiment analysis is presented that first determines whether an expression is neutral or polar and then disambiguates the polarity of the polar expressions.
A sentimental education
3,343 Citations2004Bo Pang, Lillian Lee
A novel machine-learning method is proposed that applies text-categorization techniques to just the subjective portions of the document, which greatly facilitates incorporation of cross-sentence contextual constraints.
The Annals of StatisticsOn the Convergence Properties of the EM Algorithm
3,252 Citations1983Changbao Wu
Accurate unlexicalized parsing
3,055 Citations2003Dan Klein, Christopher D. Manning
It is demonstrated that an unlexicalized PCFG can parse much more accurately than previously shown, by making use of simple, linguistically motivated state splits, which break down false independence assumptions latent in a vanilla treebank grammar.
Incorporating non-local information into information extraction systems by Gibbs sampling
3,035 Citations2005Jenny Rose Finkel, Trond Grenager +1 more
By using simulated annealing in place of Viterbi decoding in sequence models such as HMMs, CMMs, and CRFs, it is possible to incorporate non-local structure while preserving tractable inference.
Feature-rich part-of-speech tagging with a cyclic dependency network
2,851 Citations2003Kristina Toutanova, Dan Klein +2 more
A new part-of-speech tagger is presented that demonstrates the following ideas: explicit use of both preceding and following tag contexts via a dependency network representation, broad use of lexical features, and effective use of priors in conditional loglinear models.
Theoretical Computer ScienceThe complexity of computing the permanent
2,759 Citations1979Leslie G. Valiant
It is shown that the permanent function of (0, 1)-matrices is a complete problem for the class of counting problems associated with nondeterministic polynomial time computations.
The Berkeley FrameNet Project
2,564 Citations1998Collin F. Baker, Charles J. Fillmore +1 more
This report will present the project's goals and workflow, and information about the computational tools that have been adapted or created in-house for this work.
Journal of the ACMTheoretical Improvements in Algorithmic Efficiency for Network Flow Problems
2,522 Citations1972Jack Edmonds, Richard M. Karp
Upper bounds on the number of steps in these algorithms are derived, and are shown to improve on the upper bounds of earlier algorithms.
Computational LinguisticsThe Proposition Bank: An Annotated Corpus of Semantic Roles
2,302 Citations2005Martha Palmer, Daniel Gildea +1 more
An automatic system for semantic role tagging trained on the corpus is described and the effect on its performance of various types of information is discussed, including a comparison of full syntactic parsing with a flat representation and the contribution of the empty trace categories of the treebank.
Transactions of the American Mathematical SocietyTests of statistical hypotheses concerning several parameters when the number of observations is large
2,259 Citations1943Abraham Wald
A View of the Em Algorithm that Justifies Incremental, Sparse, and other Variants
2,187 Citations1998Radford M. Neal, Geoffrey E. Hinton
An incremental variant of the EM algorithm in which the distribution for only one of the unobserved variables is recalculated in each E step is shown empirically to give faster convergence in a mixture estimation problem.
The Proper Treatment of Quantification in Ordinary English
2,070 Citations1973Richard Montague
Journal of the American Statistical AssociationStatistical Methods for Speech Recognition
1,988 Citations1999Don X. Sun, Frederick Jelinek
The speech recognition problem hidden Markov models the acoustic model basic language modelling the Viterbi search hypothesis search on a tree and the fast match elements of information theory.
Discriminative training methods for hidden Markov models
1,889 Citations2002Michael Collins
Experimental results on part-of-speech tagging and base noun phrase chunking are given, in both cases showing improvements over results for a maximum-entropy tagger.
On Discriminative vs. Generative Classifiers: A comparison of logistic regression and naive Bayes
1,887 Citations2001Andrew Y. Ng, Michael I. Jordan
It is shown, contrary to a widely-held belief that discriminative classifiers are almost always to be preferred, that there can often be two distinct regimes of performance as the training set size is increased, one in which each algorithm does better.
Computational LinguisticsHead-Driven Statistical Models for Natural Language Parsing
1,860 Citations2003Michael Collins
Three statistical models for natural language parsing are described, leading to approaches in which a parse tree is represented as the sequence of decisions corresponding to a head-centered, top-down derivation of the tree.
Synthesis lectures on artificial intelligence and machine learningIntroduction to Semi-Supervised Learning
1,804 Citations2009Xiaojin Zhu, Andrew B. Goldberg
This introductory book presents some popular semi-supervised learning models, including self-training, mixture models, co-training and multiview learning, graph-based methods, and semi- supervised support vector machines, and discusses their basic mathematical formulation.
A statistical approach to machine translation
1,699 Citations1990Peter F. Brown, John Cocke +6 more
The application of the statistical approach to translation from French to English and preliminary results are described and the results are given.
Computational LinguisticsAutomatic Labeling of Semantic Roles
1,647 Citations2002Daniel Gildea, Daniel Jurafsky
Lecture notes in computer scienceThe PASCAL Recognising Textual Entailment Challenge
1,626 Citations2006Ido Dagan, Oren Glickman +1 more
Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series D (The Statistician)Statistical Analysis of Non-Lattice Data
1,575 Citations1975Julian Besag
Domain adaptation with structural correspondence learning
1,562 Citations2006John Blitzer, Ryan McDonald +1 more
This work introduces structural correspondence learning to automatically induce correspondences among features from different domains in order to adapt existing models from a resource-rich source domain to aresource-poor target domain.
A maximum-entropy-inspired parser
1,496 Citations2000Eugene Charniak
A new parser for parsing down to Penn tree-bank style parse trees that achieves 90.1% average precision/recall for sentences of length 40 and less and 89.5% when trained and tested on the previously established sections of the Wall Street Journal treebank is presented.
Statistical Significance Tests for Machine Translation Evaluation.
1,465 Citations2004Philipp Koehn
Online Passive-Aggressive Algorithms
1,449 Citations2006Koby Crammer, Ofer Dekel +3 more
Maximum Entropy Markov Models for Information Extraction and Segmentation
1,333 Citations2000Andrew McCallum, Dayne Freitag +1 more
A new Markovian sequence model is presented that allows observations to be represented as arbitrary overlapping features (such as word, capitalization, formatting, part-of-speech), and defines the conditional probability of state sequences given observation sequences.
Maximum Entropy Model for Part-Of-Speech Tagging
1,276 Citations1996Adwait Ratnaparkhi
A statistical model which trains from a corpus annotated with Part Of Speech tags and assigns them to previously unseen text with state of the art accuracy and discusses the corpus consistency problems discovered during the implementation of these features.
Support vector machine learning for interdependent and structured output spaces
1,260 Citations2004Ioannis Tsochantaridis, Thomas Hofmann +2 more
This paper proposes to generalize multiclass Support Vector Machine learning in a formulation that involves features extracted jointly from inputs and outputs, and demonstrates the versatility and effectiveness of the method on problems ranging from supervised grammar learning and named-entity recognition, to taxonomic text classification and sequence alignment.
Max-Margin Markov Networks
1,251 Citations2003Ben Taskar, Carlos Guestrin +1 more
Maximum margin Markov (M3) networks incorporate both kernels, which efficiently deal with high-dimensional features, and the ability to capture correlations in structured data, and a new theoretical bound for generalization in structured domains is provided.
Computational LinguisticsHierarchical Phrase-Based Translation
1,164 Citations2007David Chiang
A statistical machine translation model that uses hierarchical phrasesphrases that contain subphrasing that is formally a synchronous context-free grammar but is learned from a parallel text without any syntactic annotations is presented.
A hierarchical phrase-based model for statistical machine translation
1,161 Citations2005David Chiang
The model is formally a synchronous context-free grammar but is learned from a bitext without any syntactic information, which can be seen as a shift to the formal machinery of syntax-based translation systems without any linguistic commitment.
The Penn Discourse TreeBank 2.0.
1,130 Citations2008Rashmi Prasad, Nikhil Dinesh +5 more
The second version of the Penn Discourse Treebank, PDTB-2.0, is presented, describing its lexically-grounded annotations of discourse relations and their two abstract object arguments over the 1 million word Wall Street Journal corpus.
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine IntelligenceInducing features of random fields
1,044 Citations1997S. Della Pietra, V. Della Pietra +1 more
The random field models and techniques introduced in this paper differ from those common to much of the computer vision literature in that the underlying random fields are non-Markovian and have a large number of parameters that must be estimated.
Learning extraction patterns for subjective expressions
1,001 Citations2003Ellen Riloff, Janyce Wiebe
A bootstrapping process that learns linguistically rich extraction patterns for subjective (opinionated) expressions while maintaining high precision is presented.
CoNLL-X shared task on multilingual dependency parsing
976 Citations2006Sabine Buchholz, Erwin Marsi
How treebanks for 13 languages were converted into the same dependency format and how parsing performance was measured is described and general conclusions about multi-lingual parsing are drawn.
Information and ControlRecognition and parsing of context-free languages in time n3
947 Citations1967D. H. Younger
A recognition algorithm is exhibited whereby an arbitrary string over a given vocabulary can be tested for containment in a given context-free language and it is shown that it is completed in a number of steps proportional to the “cube” of the number of symbols in the tested string.
The Stanford typed dependencies representation
922 Citations2008Marie-Catherine de Marneffe, Christopher D. Manning
This paper examines the Stanford typed dependencies representation, which was designed to provide a straightforward description of grammatical relations for any user who could benefit from automatic text understanding, and considers the underlying design principles of the Stanford scheme.
Finite-state transducers in language and speech processing
919 Citations1997Mehryar Mohri
Coarse-to-fine <i>n</i>-best parsing and MaxEnt discriminative reranking
888 Citations2005Eugene Charniak, Mark Johnson
This paper describes a simple yet novel method for constructing sets of 50- best parses based on a coarse-to-fine generative parser that generates 50-best lists that are of substantially higher quality than previously obtainable.
Stochastic inversion transduction grammars and bilingual parsing of parallel corpora
861 Citations1997Dekai Wu
Non-projective dependency parsing using spanning tree algorithms
857 Citations2005Ryan McDonald, Fernando Pereira +2 more
Using this representation, the parsing algorithm of Eisner (1996) is sufficient for searching over all projective trees in O(n3) time and is extended naturally to non-projective parsing using Chu-Liu-Edmonds (Chu and Liu, 1965; Edmonds, 1967) MST algorithm, yielding an O( n2) parsing algorithm.
FigsharePart-of-Speech Tagging for Twitter: Annotation, Features, and Experiments
830 Citations2018Kevin Gimpel, Nathan Schneider +8 more
Communications of the ACMAn efficient context-free parsing algorithm
817 Citations1970Jay Earley
A parsing algorithm which seems to be the most efficient general context-free algorithm known is described and appears to be superior to the top-down and bottom-up algorithms studied by Griffiths and Petrick.
Online large-margin training of dependency parsers
816 Citations2005Ryan McDonald, Koby Crammer +1 more
An effective training algorithm for linearly-scored dependency parsers that implements online large-margin multi-class training on top of efficient parsing techniques for dependency trees is presented.
Learning accurate, compact, and interpretable tree annotation
812 Citations2006Slav Petrov, Leon Barrett +2 more
An automatic approach to tree annotation in which basic nonterminal symbols are alternately split and merged to maximize the likelihood of a training treebank is presented.
arXiv (Cornell University)Learning to Map Sentences to Logical Form: Structured Classification with Probabilistic Categorial Grammars
791 Citations2012Luke Zettlemoyer, Michael J. Collins
A syntax-based statistical translation model
736 Citations2001Kenji Yamada, Kevin Knight
This model transforms a source-language parse tree into a target-language string by applying stochastic operations at each node, and produces word alignments that are better than those produced by IBM Model 5.
Learning to parse database queries using inductive logic programming
682 Citations1996John M. Zelle, Raymond J. Mooney
Experimental results with a complete database-query application for U.S. geography show that CHILL is able to learn parsers that outperform a preexisting, hand-crafted counterpart, and provide direct evidence of the utility of an empirical approach at the level of a complete natural language application.
IEEE Transactions on Information TheoryMAP Estimation Via Agreement on Trees: Message-Passing and Linear Programming
670 Citations2005Martin J. Wainwright, Tommi Jaakkola +1 more
This work develops and analyze methods for computing provably optimal maximum a posteriori probability (MAP) configurations for a subclass of Markov random fields defined on graphs with cycles and establishes a connection between a certain LP relaxation of the mode-finding problem and a reweighted form of the max-product (min-sum) message-passing algorithm.
Word-sense disambiguation using statistical models of Roget's categories trained on large corpora
670 Citations1992David Yarowsky
A program that disambiguates English word senses in unrestricted text using statistical models of the major Roget's Thesaurus categories, enabling training on unrestricted monolingual text without human intervention.
A comparison of algorithms for maximum entropy parameter estimation
667 Citations2002Robert Malouf
A number of algorithms for estimating the parameters of ME models are considered, including iterative scaling, gradient ascent, conjugate gradient, and variable metric methods.
Publication Server of Goethe University Frankfurt am Main (Goethe University Frankfurt)The CoNLL 2007 Shared Task on Dependency Parsing
662 Citations2007Joakim Nivre, Johan Hall +5 more
Introduction to the CoNLL-2005 shared task
649 Citations2005Xavier Carreras, Lluı́s Màrquez
The specification and goals of the task are introduced, the data sets and evaluation methods are described, and a general overview of the 19 systems that have contributed to the task is presented, providing a comparative description and results.
Learning structural SVMs with latent variables
627 Citations2009Chun-Nam Yu, Thorsten Joachims
A large-margin formulation and algorithm for structured output prediction that allows the use of latent variables and the generality and performance of the approach is demonstrated through three applications including motiffinding, noun-phrase coreference resolution, and optimizing precision at k in information retrieval.
Multi-paragraph segmentation of expository text
558 Citations1994Marti A. Hearst
TextTiling, an algorithm for partitioning expository texts into coherent multi-paragraph discourse units which reflect the subtopic structure of the texts, is described and shown to produce segmentation that corresponds well to human judgments of the major subtopic boundaries of thirteen lengthy texts.
Large Language Models in Machine Translation
550 Citations2007Thorsten Brants, Ashok C. Popat +3 more
Systems, methods, and computer program products for machine translation are provided for backoff score determination as a function of a backoff factor and a relative frequency of a corresponding backoff n-gram in the corpus.
Scalable training of<i>L</i><sup>1</sup>-regularized log-linear models
541 Citations2007Galen Andrew, Jianfeng Gao
This work presents an algorithm Orthant-Wise Limited-memory Quasi-Newton (OWL-QN), based on L-BFGS, that can efficiently optimize the L1-regularized log-likelihood of log-linear models with millions of parameters.
IBM Journal of Research and DevelopmentFast Sequential Decoding Algorithm Using a Stack
538 Citations1969F. Jelinek
A new sequential decoding algorithm is introduced that uses stack storage at the receiver that is much simpler to describe and analyze than the Fano algorithm, and is about six times faster than the latter at transmission rates equal to Rcomp.
The Journal of the Acoustical Society of AmericaTrainable grammars for speech recognition
538 Citations1979James K. Baker
This paper presents a generalization of these algorithms to certain denumerable‐state, hidden Markov processes that permits automatic training of the stochastic analog of an arbitrary context free grammar.
Entity-based cross-document coreferencing using the Vector Space Model
533 Citations1998Amit Bagga, Breck Baldwin
A cross-document coreference resolution algorithm which uses the Vector Space Model to resolve ambiguities between people having the same name and this algorithm is compared to the scoring algorithm used in the MUC-6 (within document) coreference task.
Computational LinguisticsLearning Dependency-Based Compositional Semantics
523 Citations2012Percy Liang, Michael I. Jordan +1 more
A new semantic formalism, dependency-based compositional semantics (DCS) is developed and a log-linear distribution over DCS logical forms is defined and it is shown that the system obtains comparable accuracies to even state-of-the-art systems that do require annotated logical forms.
IEEE Transactions on Acoustics Speech and Signal ProcessingThe DRAGON system--An overview
508 Citations1975James Baker
This paper briefly describes the major features of the DRAGON speech understanding system, which makes systematic use of a general abstract model to represent each of the knowledge sources necessary for automatic recognition of continuous speech.
New ranking algorithms for parsing and tagging
505 Citations2001Michael Collins, Nigel Duffy
New learning algorithms for natural language processing based on the perceptron algorithm are introduced, showing how the algorithms can be efficiently applied to exponential sized representations of parse trees, such as the "all subtrees" (DOP) representation described by (Bod 1998).
A hierarchical Bayesian language model based on Pitman-Yor processes
498 Citations2006Yee Whye Teh
It is shown that an approximation to the hierarchical Pitman-Yor language model recovers the exact formulation of interpolated Kneser-Ney, one of the best smoothing methods for n-gram language models.
IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine IntelligenceHidden Conditional Random Fields
490 Citations2007Ariadna Quattoni, Sybor Wang +3 more
A discriminative latent variable model for classification problems in structured domains where inputs can be represented by a graph of local observations and a hidden-state conditional random field framework learns a set of latent variables conditioned on local features.
…