BIOLOGY OF HIV-1 IN WOMEN AND MEN
Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinics of North AmericaPublished 1 December 1997
Harold Burger, Barbara Weiser
Citations20
SJR quartileQ1
SJR score0.87
SNIP1.18
Generate an AI Snapshot to get a quick, structured summary of this paper.
Study Snapshot
ObjectiveStudy objective
MethodsResearch methodology
PopulationPopulation studied
Sample sizeSample sizes
OutcomesStudy outcomes here
ResultsStudy results comes here
LimitationsResearch study limitations comes here
A concise AI-generated summary of the paper will appear here once you click Generate AI Snapshot.
TL;DR
The 1990s have been marked by tremendous progress in understanding HIV-1 infection and disease progression in infected individuals, leading to the discoveries that detectable or even high levels of HIV- 1 replication occur during all phases of infection, and that plasma HIV-2 RNA levels are powerful predictors of clinical outcome.
Abstract
The 1990s have been marked by tremendous progress in understanding HIV-1 infection and disease progression in infected individuals. The new discoveries have direct applications in predicting clinical outcomes and monitoring antiviral therapies. With the identification of secondary receptors for HIV-1 cell entry, the CCR-5 receptor was found to be a single genetically determined factor influencing both HIV-1 transmission and disease progression. Quantitation of HIV-1 RNA led to the discoveries that detectable or even high levels of HIV-1 replication occur during all phases of infection, and that plasma HIV-1 RNA levels are powerful predictors of clinical outcome. These findings have increased the ability to predict disease progression and to monitor-antiviral therapy in infected individuals.
Keywords
Immunology and MicrobiologyMedicine
NatureRapid turnover of plasma virions and CD4 lymphocytes in HIV-1 infection
4,289 Citations1995David D. Ho, Avidan U. Neumann +4 more
Treatment of infected patients with ABT-538 causes plasma HIV-1 levels to decrease exponentially and CD4 lymphocyte counts to rise substantially, indicating that replication of HIV- 1 in vivo is continuous and highly productive, driving the rapid turnover ofCD4 lymphocytes.
New England Journal of MedicineReduction of Maternal-Infant Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 with Zidovudine Treatment
3,741 Citations1994Edward M. Connor, Rhoda Sperling +18 more
In pregnant women with mildly symptomatic HIV disease and no prior treatment with antiretroviral drugs during the pregnancy, a regimen consisting of zidovudine given ante partum and intra partum to the mother and to the newborn for six weeks reduced the risk of maternal-infant HIV transmission by approximately two thirds.
NatureIdentification of a major co-receptor for primary isolates of HIV-1
3,665 Citations1996Hongkui Deng, Rong Liu +13 more
The principal cofactor for entry mediated by the envelope glycoproteins of primary macrophage-tropic strains of HIV-1 is CC-CKR-5, a receptor for the β-chemokines RANTES, Mip-1α and MIP-1β.
ScienceHIV-1 Dynamics in Vivo: Virion Clearance Rate, Infected Cell Life-Span, and Viral Generation Time
3,550 Citations1996Alan S. Perelson, Avidan U. Neumann +3 more
A new mathematical model was used to analyze a detailed set of human immunodeficiency virus-type 1 (HIV-1) viral load data collected from five infected individuals after the administration of a potent inhibitor of HIV-1 protease, providing not only a kinetic picture ofAIDS pathogenesis, but also theoretical principles to guide the development of treatment strategies.
NatureViral dynamics in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection
3,290 Citations1995Xiping Wei, Sajal K. Ghosh +10 more
NatureHIV-1 entry into CD4+ cells is mediated by the chemokine receptor CC-CKR-5
3,201 Citations1996Tatjana Dragic, Virginia Litwin +9 more
NatureResistance to HIV-1 infection in Caucasian individuals bearing mutant alleles of the CCR-5 chemokine receptor gene
2,898 Citations1996Michel Samson, Frédérick Libert +20 more
It is shown that a mutant allele of CCR-5 is present at a high frequency in caucasian populations, but is absent in black populations from Western and Central Africa and Japanese populations, and a 32-base-pair deletion within the coding region results in a frame shift, and generates a non-functional receptor that does not support membrane fusion or infection by macrophage- and dual-tropic HIV-1 strains.
ScienceIdentification of RANTES, MIP-1α, and MIP-1β as the Major HIV-Suppressive Factors Produced by CD8 <sup>+</sup> T Cells
2,881 Citations1995Fiorenza Cocchi, Anthony L. DeVico +4 more
Recombinant human RANTES, Mip-1 alpha, and MIP-1 beta induced a dose-dependent inhibition of different strains of HIV-1, HIV-2, and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) and may have relevance for the prevention and therapy of AIDS.
ScienceCC CKR5: A RANTES, MIP-1α, MIP-1β Receptor as a Fusion Cofactor for Macrophage-Tropic HIV-1
2,720 Citations1996Ghalib Alkhatib, Christophe Combadière +5 more
Recombinant CC CKR5, a G protein-coupled receptor for these chemokines, rendered CD4-expressing nonhuman cells fusion-competent preferentially with macrophage-tropic Envs, and is thus a fusion cofactor for HIV-1 strains.
SciencePrognosis in HIV-1 Infection Predicted by the Quantity of Virus in Plasma
2,705 Citations1996John W. Mellors, Charles R. Rinaldo +4 more
Plasma viral load was a better predictor of progression to AIDS and death than was the number of CD4+ T cells, and the risk of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and death in study subjects was directly related to plasma viral load at study entry.
ScienceGenetic Restriction of HIV-1 Infection and Progression to AIDS by a Deletion Allele of the <i>CKR5</i> Structural Gene
2,501 Citations1996Michael Dean, Mary Carrington +15 more
The CKR5Δ32 deletion may act as a recessive restriction gene against HIV-1 infection and may exert a dominant phenotype of delaying progression to AIDS among infected individuals.
ScienceHIV Population Dynamics in Vivo: Implications for Genetic Variation, Pathogenesis, and Therapy
1,985 Citations1995John M. Coffin
Results lead to a simple steady-state model in which infection, cell death, and cell replacement are in balance, and imply that the unique feature of HIV is the extraordinarily large number of replication cycles that occur during infection of a single individual.
CellA Dual-Tropic Primary HIV-1 Isolate That Uses Fusin and the β-Chemokine Receptors CKR-5, CKR-3, and CKR-2b as Fusion Cofactors
1,847 Citations1996Benjamin J. Doranz, Joseph Rucker +7 more
The results suggest that the T- Tropic viruses characteristic of disease progression may evolve from purely M-tropic viruses prevalent early in virus infection through changes in the env protein that enable the virus to use multiple entry cofactors.
NatureHIV infection is active and progressive in lymphoid tissue during the clinically latent stage of disease
1,832 Citations1993Giuseppe Pantaleo, Cecilia Graziosi +7 more
It is reported that in early-stage disease there is a dichotomy between the levels of viral burden and virus replication in peripheral blood versus lymphoid organs.
Obstetrical & Gynecological SurveyReduction of Maternal-Infant Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus 1 with Zidovudine Treatment
1,825 Citations1995Edward M. Connor, Rhoda Sperling +18 more
It was shown that AZT decreased the maternal-infant transmission of HIV and helped decrease infant mortality due to the viral infection.
ScienceDetection of AIDS Virus in Macrophages in Brain Tissue from AIDS Patients with Encephalopathy
1,697 Citations1986Scott Koenig, Howard E. Gendelman +8 more
The identity of an important cell type that supports replication of the AIDS retrovirus in brain tissue was determined in two affected individuals and these cells were mononucleated and multinucleated macrophages that actively synthesized viral RNA and produced progeny virions in the brains of the patients.
NatureMassive covert infection of helper T lymphocytes and macrophages by HIV during the incubation period of AIDS
1,431 Citations1993Janet E. Embretson, Mary Zupancic +5 more
An extraordinarily large number of latently infected CD4+ lymphocytes and macrophages are discovered throughout the lymphoid system from early to late stages of infection, and the extracellular association of HIV with follicular dendritic cells is confirmed.
Nature MedicineThe role of a mutant CCR5 allele in HIV–1 transmission and disease progression
1,365 Citations1996Yaoxing Huang, William A. Paxton +15 more
The CCR5 genotype of 1252 homosexual men enrolled in the Chicago component of the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS) was analyzed and no evidence was found to suggest that heterozygotes were protected against HIV–1 infection, but a limited protective role against disease progression was noted.
ScienceGenotypic and Phenotypic Characterization of HIV-1 Patients with Primary Infection
1,249 Citations1993Tuofu Zhu, Hongmei Mo +5 more
In five HIV-1 seroconverters, the viral phenotype was found to be uniformly macrophage-tropic and non-syncytium-inducing and the viruses were genotypically homogeneous within each patient, but a common signature sequence was not discernible among transmitted viruses.
ScienceHigh Levels of HIV-1 in Plasma During All Stages of Infection Determined By Competitive PCR
1,242 Citations1993M. Piatak, M. S. Saag +7 more
Quantitation of HIV-1 in plasma by QC-PCR may be useful in assessing the efficacy of antiretroviral agents, especially in early stage disease when conventional viral markers are often negative.
New England Journal of MedicineQuantitation of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 in the Blood of Infected Persons
1,078 Citations1989David D. Ho, Tarsem Moudgil +1 more
Journal of VirologyBiological phenotype of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 clones at different stages of infection: progression of disease is associated with a shift from monocytotropic to T-cell-tropic virus population
1,035 Citations1992Hanneke Schuitemaker, M. Koot +8 more
Findings indicate that monocytotropic HIV-1 clones, probably generated in the tissues, are responsible for the persistence of HIV- 1 infection and that progression of HIV -1 infection is associated with a selective increase of T-cell-tropic, nonmonocytotropic,Non-MDM- Tropic HIV-2 variants in peripheral blood.
Nature MedicineInfluence of combinations of human major histocompatibility complex genes on the course of HIV–1 infection
966 Citations1996Richard A. Kaslow, Mary Carrington +13 more
An HLA profile was produced that predicted time from HIV–1 infection to the onset of AIDS and support current theory about control of antigen processing by HLA genes and have implications for immunopathogenesis of HIV-1 and other infections.
NatureHost factors and the pathogenesis of HIV-induced disease
846 Citations1996A S Fauci
The level of human immunodeficiency virus replication in patients reflects a balance between stimulatory and inhibitory host factors (particularly endogenous cytokines); new information concerning the cellular co-receptors for HIV and the cellular tropism of different strains of virus will advance understanding of HIV-induced pathogenesis.
New England Journal of MedicineChanges in Plasma HIV-1 RNA and CD4+ Lymphocyte Counts and the Risk of Progression to AIDS
734 Citations1996William A. O’Brien, Pamela Hartigan +7 more
Treatment-induced changes in the plasma HIV-1 RNA level and the CD4+ lymphocyte count are valid predictors of the clinical progression of HIV-related disease and can be used to assess the efficacy of zidovudine and possibly other antiretroviral drugs as well.
Nature MedicineRelative resistance to HIV–1 infection of CD4 lymphocytes from persons who remain uninfected despite multiple high–risk sexual exposures
651 Citations1996William A. Paxton, Scott R. Martin +9 more
A cohort of 25 subjects with histories of multiple high–risk sexual exposures to HIV–1 found that their CD8+ lymphocytes had greater anti–HIV–1 activity than did CD8+, and their purified CD4+; lymphocytes were less susceptible to infection with multiple primary isolates of HIV-1 than were CD4+.
ScienceAdaptive Evolution of Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Type 1 During the Natural Course of Infection
570 Citations1996Steven M. Wolinsky, Bette Korber +9 more
The evolutionary dynamics exhibited by the HIV-1 quasispecies virus populations under natural selection are compatible with adaptive evolution.
New England Journal of MedicinePlasma Viremia in Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection
565 Citations1989Robert W. Coombs, Ann C. Collier +5 more
It is concluded that plasma viremia is a more sensitive virologic marker of the clinical stage of HIV infection and viral replication than the presence of p24 antigen or antibody in plasma.
DrugsAntiretroviral Therapy for HIV Infection
539 Citations1998Graeme Moyle, Brian Gazzard +2 more
3-drug therapy should represent current standard practice in a nontrials setting and may be best guided by measurement of viral load, with a range of other markers having potential utility in individualising treatment decisions.
Annals of Internal MedicineImmunopathogenic Mechanisms of HIV Infection
507 Citations1996Anthony S. Fauci, Giuseppe Pantaleo +2 more
The mechanisms operable in an appropriate immune response to HIV, particularly activation of the immune system, are paradoxically the same mechanisms that propagate HIV infection and lead to the ultimate destruction of lymphoid tissue and to profound immunosuppression.
Journal of VirologySelection for specific sequences in the external envelope protein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 upon primary infection
471 Citations1993L. Q. Zhang, Peter I. Mackenzie +4 more
The persistence of HIV sequences in peripheral blood mononuclear cells identical to those found at primary infection in the absence of continued virus expression provides an explanation for the previously observed differences in the composition of circulating DNA and RNA populations in sequential samples from seropositive individuals.
NatureHigh levels of unintegrated HIV-1 DNA in brain tissue of AIDS dementia patients
386 Citations1990Shen Pang, Yoshio Koyanagi +4 more
The results indicate that each of the three species of viral DNA are detectable in blood and brain of AIDS patients and that in autopsy samples from patients with HIV encephalitis there is a considerably higher proportion of unintegrated viral DNA.
ScienceHIV-1 Langerhans' Cell Tropism Associated with Heterosexual Transmission of HIV
348 Citations1996Luis Enrique Soto-Ramírez, Boris Renjifo +15 more
Results suggest that LC tropism is associated with the efficiency of heterosexual transmission of HIV, which is less important in the HIV-1 epidemics of the United States and Western Europe.
ScienceReplication of HIV-1 in Dendritic Cell-Derived Syncytia at the Mucosal Surface of the Adenoid
317 Citations1996Sarah S. Frankel, Bruce M. Wenig +7 more
The interaction of dendritic cells and T cells in mucosa may support HIV-1 replication, even in subclinical stages of infection.
JAMAAntiretroviral Therapy for HIV Infection in 1996
309 Citations1996Charles C. J. Carpenter
Recent data on HIV pathogenesis, methods to determine plasma HIV RNA, clinical trial data, and availability of new drugs point to the need for new approaches to treatment, and therapeutic approaches need to be updated as new data continue to emerge.
Nature MedicineChemokines and HIV–1 second receptors
304 Citations1996M. Patricia D’Souza, Victoria A. Harden
Confluence of two fields generates optimism in AIDS research and shows hope for the future in HIV/AIDS research.
BloodHuman immunodeficiency virus-type 1 replication can be increased in peripheral blood of seropositive patients after influenza vaccination
300 Citations1995WA O'Brien, Kathie Grovit‐Ferbas +7 more
This is the first report showing that HIV-1 replication can increase in temporal association with influenza vaccination, and suggests that continued immunologic (antigenic) stimulation may result in increased virus load in vivo.
Annals of Internal MedicineIncreasing Viral Burden in CD4+ T Cells from Patients with Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infection Reflects Rapidly Progressive Immunosuppression and Clinical Disease
278 Citations1990Steven Schnittman, Jack J. Greenhouse +5 more
Increasing viral burden in peripheral blood CD4+ T-cells is directly associated with a progressive decline in CD4- T cells and deteriorating clinical course in HIV-infected patients.
Journal of Clinical InvestigationCD8+ cell anti-HIV activity correlates with the clinical state of the infected individual.
277 Citations1991Carl E. Mackewicz, Henry W. Ortega +1 more
JAMANatural History of HIV-1 Cell-Free Viremia
244 Citations1995H. Dr
The stability of virion-associated HIV- 1 RNA levels suggests that an equilibrium between HIV-1 replication rate and efficacy of immunologic response is established shortly after infection and persists throughout the asymptomatic period of the disease.
VirologyThe Natural History of HIV-1 Infection: Virus Load and Virus Phenotype Independent Determinants of Clinical Course?
177 Citations1994Suzanne Jurriaans, Bob van Gemen +7 more
Results show that early in HIV-1 infection progressors and nonprogressors are distinguishable, and a significant decrease in the number of HIV- 1 RNA copies in the early phase of infection seems to postpone the development of AIDS.
Human Retroviruses and AIDS. A compilation and analysis of nucleic acid and amino acid sequences: I--II; III--V
174 Citations1993Gerald Myers, Bette Korber +3 more
This compendium and the accompanying floppy diskettes are the result of an effort to compile and rapidly publish all relevant molecular data concerning the human immunodeficiency viruses (HIV) and related retroviruses.
Proceedings of the National Academy of SciencesMaternal plasma human immunodeficiency virus type 1 RNA level: a determinant and projected threshold for mother-to-child transmission.
174 Citations1995G. Fang, Harold Burger +8 more
Examination of serial HIV-1 RNA levels during pregnancy showed that viral load was stable in women who did not initiate or change antiviral therapy, and data identify maternal plasma HIV- 1-RNA level as a major determinant of mother-to-child transmission and suggest that quantitation of HIV-2 RNA may predict the risk of transmission.
The Journal of Infectious DiseasesAssociation of Plasma Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 RNA Level withRisk of Clinical Progression in Patients with Advanced Infection
171 Citations1996Robert W. Coombs, Seth L. Welles +12 more
The partial validation of HIV-1 RNA as a predictor for clinical end points has implications for the use of HIV -1 RNA in clinical trials and practice.
The Journal of Infectious DiseasesMaternal Virus Load during Pregnancy and Mother-to-Child Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1: The French Perinatal Cohort Studies
158 Citations1997M. J. Mayaux, Élisabeth Dussaix +9 more
Maternal virus load appears strongly related to HIV transmission to the child, and women born in sub-Saharan Africa had lower RNA levels, although their CD4 cell distribution did not differ from that in other women.
JAMAIdentification of Levels of Maternal HIV-1 RNA Associated With Risk of Perinatal Transmission
146 Citations1996Ruth Dickover
Maternal HIV-1 RNA levels were highly predictive of perinatal transmission risk and suggest that certain levels of virus late in gestation and/or during labor and delivery are associated with both a high risk and a low risk of transmission.
The Journal of Infectious DiseasesPredictors for Non- and Slow Progression in Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Type 1 Infection: Low Viral RNA Copy Numbers in Serum and Maintenance of High HIV-1 p24-Specific but Not V3-Specific Antibody Levels
143 Citations1995Els J. M. Hogervorst, Suzanne Jurriaans +9 more
Early in infection, before immunologic markers or clinical manifestations allowed group discrimination, subjects who were later classified as LTAs had significantly less serum viral RNA than progressors, indicating that the initial load defines clinical outcome.
The LancetPaediatric HIV infection
143 Citations1996Gabriella Scarlatti
Further studies are needed on immunological and virological factors affecting HIV-1 transmission from mother to child, on differential disease progression in affected children, and on transient infection.
BloodHuman immunodeficiency virus-type 1 replication can be increased in peripheral blood of seropositive patients after influenza vaccination
142 Citations1995WA O'Brien, Kathie Grovit‐Ferbas +7 more
The LancetChanging the natural history of HIV disease
131 Citations1996Mark B. Feinberg
For the first time, rational approaches to contain and perhaps eliminate HIV-1 infection can be pursued and potent combinations of antiviral drugs seem to be able to circumvent the inherent tendency of HIV- 1 to generate drug-resistant viruses.
Proceedings of the National Academy of SciencesHuman immunodeficiency virus type 1 in spinal cords of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome patients with myelopathy: expression and replication in macrophages.
129 Citations1989David J. Eilbott, Nancy S. Peress +6 more
A role for HIV-1-infected macrophages locally in the pathogenesis of vacuolar myelopathy is suggested and added to the body of evidence that these cells play a role systemically in the development of HIV- 1-related disease.
The Journal of Infectious DiseasesHigh-Level Viremia in Adults and Children Infected with Human Immunodeficiency Virus: Relation to Disease Stage and CD4+ Lymphocyte Levels
126 Citations1991Michael S. Saag, Marilyn J. Crain +8 more
Each of five children infected with HIV-1 in utero or during the perinatal period were plasma viremic regardless of their CD4+ lymphocytes counts, duration of infection, or clinical stage; however, children infected by HIV- 1 at older ages were less frequently plasma viresmic.
New England Journal of MedicineInfection by Human Immunodeficiency Virus — CD4 is Not Enough
117 Citations1996Jay A. Levy
In the past few years, research has turned up surprising evidence that the virus can bind to cells by means of receptors other than CD4, including galactosylceramide on brain and bowel cells and, when the virus has formed a complex with antibody, Fc receptors.
The LancetRedistribution of HIV outside the lymphoid system with onset of AIDS
94 Citations1994Y K Donaldson, Peter Simmonds +5 more
The findings suggest that spread of HIV outside cells of the immune system is a late event in HIV infection and is extremely sensitive to the degree of immunosuppression in the patient.
Journal of VirologyChanges in the viral mRNA expression pattern correlate with a rapid rate of CD4+ T-cell number decline in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected individuals
87 Citations1995Manohar R. Furtado, Lawrence Kingsley +1 more
The extent of viral transcription and replication correlates with the rate of CD4+ T-cell number decline and that quantifying intracellular viral RNA is of potential prognostic value is demonstrated.
The LancetHIV as the cause of AIDS
85 Citations1996Françoise Barré‐Sinoussi
Simian immunodeficiency viruses from naturally infected animals differ from HIV in one fundamental respect: they do not cause disease in their natural hosts, study of these viruses may lead to information about the interaction between lentiviruses and host immune response that could be exploited to combat AIDS.
The Journal of Infectious DiseasesCCR5 Genotypes in Sexually Active Couples Discordant for Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Infection Status
76 Citations1997Trevor L. Hoffman, Rob Roy MacGregor +4 more
Data are consistent with a possible association between the heterozygous delta32 genotype in heterosexual sex partners and partial protection against HIV-1 infection, and the importance of analyzing different risk groups in studies of host factors that influence infection is emphasized.
Journal of VirologyHuman immunodeficiency virus type 1 cellular RNA load and splicing patterns predict disease progression in a longitudinally studied cohort
76 Citations1995N L Michael, Tingting Mo +7 more
The shift from a predominately spliced or regulatory viral mRNA pattern to a predominate unspliced pattern both is associated with disease progression and adds predictive utility to measurement of either RNA class alone.
Annals of Internal MedicineHIV-1 Messenger RNA in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells as an Early Marker of Risk for Progression to AIDS
72 Citations1995Kalle Saksela, Cladd E. Stevens +3 more
By quantitating HIV-1 mRNA in serial peripheral blood mononuclear cell samples collected during a longitudinal study from selected asymptomatic HIV-infected men, it is found that increased viral replication appeared to precede immunodeficiency by at least 1 to 3 years.
The Journal of PediatricsCorrelation of perinatal transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 with maternal viremia and lymphocyte phenotypes
70 Citations1994W Borkowsky, Keith Krasinski +7 more
Proceedings of the National Academy of SciencesEvolution of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 nucleotide sequence diversity among close contacts.
68 Citations1991Harold Burger, Barbara Weiser +4 more
Evidence is provided of a continuous spectrum of sequence diversity between any two isolates ranging from those derived from the same person to those from close contacts and, ultimately, those from unrelated individuals.
Proceedings of the National Academy of SciencesHuman immunodeficiency virus type 1 expression in the central nervous system correlates directly with extent of disease.
49 Citations1990Barbara Weiser, Nancy S. Peress +4 more
A role for HIV-1 in the pathogenesis of tissue damage and related clinical disease in infected individuals is supported by data from spinal cords from acquired immunodeficiency syndrome patients with a wide range of spinal cord pathology.
AIDS Research and Human RetrovirusesHIV Type 1 RNA Expression in Bone Marrows of Patients with a Spectrum of Disease
18 Citations1996Barbara Weiser, Harold Burger +3 more
Although the bone marrow does not serve as a reservoir of viral expression throughout the course of infection as do the lymphoid organs, HIV-1-expressing cells are present in theBone marrow during late stages of disease, suggesting that hematologic abnormalities in the majority of infected individuals may result from indirect effects of HIV- 1 such as cytokine dysregulation rather than HIV-2 expression in the bone bone marrow itself.
The LancetPaediatric HIV infection
12 Citations1996Vijay V. Joshi
By the year 2000 there will be six million pregnant women and five to ten million children infected with HIV-1, and further studies are needed on immunological and virological factors affecting HIV- 1 transmission from mother to child.