The Development and Psychometric Properties of LIWC2015
Texas ScholarWorks (Texas Digital Library)Published 1 January 2015Open access
James W. Pennebaker, Cindy K. Chung, Molly Ireland, Amy Gonzales
Citations1,678
Generate an AI Snapshot to get a quick, structured summary of this paper.
Study Snapshot
ObjectiveStudy objective
MethodsResearch methodology
PopulationPopulation studied
Sample sizeSample sizes
OutcomesStudy outcomes here
ResultsStudy results comes here
LimitationsResearch study limitations comes here
A concise AI-generated summary of the paper will appear here once you click Generate AI Snapshot.
Abstract
The paper summarizes the nature of the LIWC2015 text analysis program, including the development of the dictionaries and the basic psychometrics of the output. Results of the 2015 version are compared with the 2007 version.
Keywords
Social Sciences
Journal of Personality and Social PsychologyDevelopment and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales.
31,665 Citations1988David Watson, Lee A. Clark +1 more
Psychological ReviewCulture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation.
20,797 Citations1991Hazel Rose Markus, Shinobu Kitayama
Language<b>Introduction to functional grammar</b> . By M. A. K. Halliday London & Baltimore: Edward Arnold, 1985. Pp. xxxv, 387.
9,924 Citations1989Christian M.I.M. Matthiessen
DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library)Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain
9,494 Citations1994António R. Damásio
ACM Computing SurveysMachine learning in automated text categorization
7,899 Citations2002Fabrizio Sebastiani
This survey discusses the main approaches to text categorization that fall within the machine learning paradigm and discusses in detail issues pertaining to three different problems, namely, document representation, classifier construction, and classifier evaluation.
Cambridge University Press eBooksVariation across Speech and Writing
5,128 Citations1988Douglas Biber
In Variation Across Speech and Writing, six dimensions of variation are identified through a factor analysis, on the basis of linguistic co-occurence patterns, and the resulting model of variation provides for the description of the distinctive linguistic characteristic of any spoken or written text and enables reconciliation of the contradictory conclusions reached in previous research.
Journal of Personality and Social PsychologyWho is this "We"? Levels of collective identity and self representations.
3,294 Citations1996Marilynn B. Brewer, Wendi L. Gardner
Annual Review of PsychologyPsychological Aspects of Natural Language Use: Our Words, Our Selves
2,586 Citations2002James W. Pennebaker, Matthias R. Mehl +1 more
Findings that point to the psychological value of studying particles-parts of speech that include pronouns, articles, prepositions, conjunctives, and auxiliary verbs are summarized.
Psychological ScienceWriting About Emotional Experiences as a Therapeutic Process
2,473 Citations1997James W. Pennebaker
The geography of thought : how Asians and Westerners think differently--and why
1,999 Citations2003Richard E. Nisbett
Journal of Personality and Social PsychologyLinguistic styles: Language use as an individual difference.
1,771 Citations1999James W. Pennebaker, Laura A. King
The data suggest that linguistic style is an independent and meaningful way of exploring personality, and factor structure, and validity of written language using a word-based, computerized text analysis program.
Cognitive PsychologyDoes Language Shape Thought?: Mandarin and English Speakers' Conceptions of Time
1,732 Citations2001Lera Boroditsky
It is concluded that (1) language is a powerful tool in shaping thought about abstract domains and (2) one's native language plays an important role in shaping habitual thought but does not entirely determine one's thinking in the strong Whorfian sense.
American PsychologistCulture, dialectics, and reasoning about contradiction.
1,686 Citations1999Kaiping Peng, Richard E. Nisbett
Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & ComputersCoh-Metrix: Analysis of text on cohesion and language
1,515 Citations2004Arthur C. Graesser, Danielle S. McNamara +2 more
Standard text readability formulas scale texts on difficulty by relying on word length and sentence length, whereas Coh-Metrix is sensitive to cohesion relations, world knowledge, and language and discourse characteristics.
Personality and Social Psychology BulletinLying Words: Predicting Deception from Linguistic Styles
1,457 Citations2003Matthew L. Newman, James W. Pennebaker +2 more
Handbook of Communication and Social Interaction Skills
1,094 Citations2003
Journal of Personality and Social PsychologyStalking the perfect measure of implicit self-esteem: The blind men and the elephant revisited?
1,031 Citations2000Jennifer K. Bosson, William B. Swann +1 more
Investigation of the reliability and validity of seven implicit self-esteem measures found some evidence that implicitSelfesteem measures are sensitive to context, but overall, the implicit measures were limited in their ability to predict criterion variables.
Cognition & EmotionLanguage use of depressed and depression-vulnerable college students
1,028 Citations2004Stephanie S. Rude, Eva‐Maria Gortner +1 more
Cognition & EmotionCognitive, Emotional, and Language Processes in Disclosure
998 Citations1996James W. Pennebaker, Martha E. Francis
Psychological ScienceLinguistic Markers of Psychological Change Surrounding September 11, 2001
817 Citations2004Michael Cohn, Matthias R. Mehl +1 more
This study bypasses many of the methodological obstacles of trauma research and provides a finegrained analysis of the time line of human coping with upheaval.
TechnometricsLarge-Scale Bayesian Logistic Regression for Text Categorization
813 Citations2007Alexander Genkin, David Lewis +1 more
This work presents a simple Bayesian logistic regression approach that uses a Laplace prior to avoid overfitting and produces sparse predictive models for text data and applies this approach to a range of document classification problems and shows that it produces compact predictive models at least as effective as those produced by support vector machine classifiers or ridgelogistic regression combined with feature selection.
Journal of Personality and Social PsychologyLinguistic predictors of adaptive bereavement.
802 Citations1997James W. Pennebaker, Tracy J. Mayne +1 more
American PsychologistWho talks? The social psychology of illness support groups.
685 Citations2000Kathryn P. Davison, James W. Pennebaker +1 more
Support seeking was highest for diseases viewed as stigmatizing and was lowest for less embarrassing but equally devastating disorders, such as heart disease, and implications for social comparison theory and its applications in health care are discussed.
Language, interaction and social cognition
631 Citations1992Gün R. Semin, Klaus Fiedler
Journal of Language and Social PsychologyLinguistic Style Matching in Social Interaction
565 Citations2002Kate Niederhoffer, James W. Pennebaker
National Conference on Artificial IntelligenceEffects of Age and Gender on Blogging
558 Citations2005Jonathan Schler, Moshe Koppel +2 more
Analysis of a corpus of tens of thousands of blogs – incorporating close to 300 million words – indicates significant differences in writing style and content between male and female bloggers as well as among authors of different ages.
Psychosomatic MedicineWord Use in the Poetry of Suicidal and Nonsuicidal Poets
557 Citations2001Shannon Wiltsey Stirman, James W. Pennebaker
Support is found for a model that suggests that suicidal individuals are detached from others and are preoccupied with self and linguistic predictors of suicide can be discerned through text analysis.
Text - Interdisciplinary Journal for the Study of DiscourseGender, genre, and writing style in formal written texts
552 Citations2003Shlomo Argamon, Moshe Koppel +2 more
Framing in Discourse
544 Citations1993Deborah Tannen
Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & ComputersAutoTutor: A tutor with dialogue in natural language
523 Citations2004Arthur C. Graesser, Shulan Lu +5 more
The design was inspired by explanation-based constructivist theories of learning, intelligent tutoring systems that adaptively respond to student knowledge, and empirical research on dialogue patterns in tutorial discourse.
Journal of Personality and Social PsychologyWords of wisdom: Language use over the life span.
522 Citations2003James W. Pennebaker, Lori D. Stone
Two projects explored the links between language use and aging by analyzing the collected works of 10 well-known novelists, playwrights, and poets who lived over the last 500 years and found that with increasing age, individuals use more positive and fewer negative affect words, use fewer self-references, and demonstrate a general pattern of increasing cognitive complexity.
Journal of Personality and Social PsychologyThe sounds of social life: A psychometric analysis of students' daily social environments and natural conversations.
520 Citations2003Matthias R. Mehl, James W. Pennebaker
Current Directions in Psychological SciencePatterns of Natural Language Use: Disclosure, Personality, and Social Integration
500 Citations2001James W. Pennebaker, Anna Graybeal
A computer program is developed that provides a “fingerprint” of the words people use in writing or in natural settings that indicates that particular patterns of word use predict health and also reflect personality styles.
American Psychological Association eBooksThe writing cure: How expressive writing promotes health and emotional well-being.
491 Citations2002
This volume is rich in illustrations of clinical applications for this technique and it provides examples of how expressive writing can improve the immune system and lung function, how it can diminish psychological distress and enhance relationships and social-role functioning.
Journal of Cross-Cultural PsychologyCulture and Language
472 Citations1998Emiko S. Kashima, Yoshihisa Kashima
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin“Who Am I?” The Cultural Psychology of the Conceptual Self
451 Citations2001Chie Kanagawa, Susan E. Cross +1 more
The Psychological Functions of Function Words
437 Citations2007Cindy K. Chung, James W. Pennebaker
Psychological ScienceThe Secret Life of Pronouns
432 Citations2003R. Sherlock Campbell, James W. Pennebaker
The writing samples from three previously published studies were reanalyzed using Latent Semantic Analysis to explore possible relationships of writing content and style to changes in frequency of physician visits following the disclosure intervention and revealed flexibility in the use of common words when writing about traumatic memories was related to positive health outcomes.
Communications of the ACMAutomatically profiling the author of an anonymous text
375 Citations2009Shlomo Argamon, Moshe Koppel +2 more
How much can the authors discern about the author of a text simply by analyzing the text itself?
Memory & CognitionInfluences of semantic and syntactic context on open- and closed-class words
367 Citations1991Cyma Van Petten, Marta Kutas
Event-related potentials were recorded as subjects read semantically meaningful, syntactically legal but nonsensical and random word strings, indicating that formal sentence structure placed greater restrictions on closed- class words than it did on open-class words.
Applied Physics Letters10.1162/jmlr.2003.3.4-5.951
323 Citations2000
This paper describes a family of additive ultraconservative algorithms where each algorithm in the family updates its prototypes by finding a feasible solution for a set of linear constraints that depend on the instantaneous similarity-scores.
The Ethical Brain
299 Citations2005Michael S. Gazzaniga
Text Analysis for the Social Sciences
295 Citations2020
Journal of Research in PersonalityLanguage Use and Personality during Crises: Analyses of Mayor Rudolph Giuliani's Press Conferences
283 Citations2002James W. Pennebaker, Thomas C. Lay
Journal of Personality AssessmentAssessment of Implicit Motives With a Research Version of the TAT: Picture Profiles, Gender Differences, and Relations to Other Personality Measures
282 Citations2001Oliver C. Schultheiss, Joachim C. Brunstein
The n Affiliation, but not n Power, n Achievement, or activity inhibition-a measure of impulse control-was found to be higher in women than in men and individuals tested in a group than in individuals tested individually.
Journal of Research in PersonalityRevealing dimensions of thinking in open-ended self-descriptions: An automated meaning extraction method for natural language
276 Citations2007Cindy K. Chung, James W. Pennebaker
The results suggest that the meaning extraction method is a promising strategy that determines the dimensions along which people think about themselves in which people contextualize their self-concepts.
Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & ComputersLatent semantic analysis for text-based research
268 Citations1996Peter W. Foltz
This paper summarizes three experiments that illustrate how LSA may be used in text-based research by describing methods for analyzing a subject’s essay for determining from what text a subject learned the information and for grading the quality of information cited in the essay.
Brain and LanguageQuantitative Analysis of Aphasic Sentence Production: Further Development and New Data
266 Citations2000Elizabeth Rochon, Eleanor M. Saffran +2 more
There is evidence that agrammatic patients can differ in their production of free and bound grammatical morphemes, substantiating earlier claims in the literature.
Sage Pub. eBooksDescribing talk : a taxonomy of verbal response modes
255 Citations1992William B. Stiles
Psychonomic Bulletin & ReviewCharacterizing semantic space: Neighborhood effects in word recognition
222 Citations2001Lori Buchanan, Chris Westbury +1 more
The findings demonstrate that semantic neighborhood can predict performance on both lexical decision and word naming, and two models of lexical semantics that define semantics in terms of associations and global co-occurrences are examined.
Journal of Research in PersonalityWinning words: Individual differences in linguistic style among U.S. presidential and vice presidential candidates
219 Citations2006Richard B. Slatcher, Cindy K. Chung +2 more
Language<b>The science of words</b> . By George A. Miller Rev. edn. New York: Scientific American Library, 1996. Pp. ix, 276.
203 Citations1997W. Nelson Francis
This text entertains and enlightens readers about the relations between words, languages, thought, and the human brain.
Psychological ScienceHow Do I Love Thee? Let Me Count the Words
196 Citations2006Richard B. Slatcher, James W. Pennebaker
People who wrote about their relationship were significantly more likely to still be dating their romantic partners 3 months later and increases in positive emotion words partially mediated the relation between expressive writing and relationship stability.
Determining an author's native language by mining a text for errors
167 Citations2005Moshe Koppel, Jonathan Schler +1 more
It is shown that stylistic text features can be exploited to determine an anonymous author's native language with high accuracy and serve as features for support vector machines that learn to classify texts according to author native language.
DiagnosticaComputergestützte quantitative Textanalyse
165 Citations2008Markus Wolf, Andrea B. Horn +4 more
Communications of the ACMFrom fingerprint to writeprint
153 Citations2006Jiexun Li, Rong Zheng +1 more
Identifying the key features to help identify and trace online authorship are identified.
Personality and Social Psychology BulletinLanguage and Interpersonal Cognition: Causal Effects of Variations in Pronoun Usage on Perceptions of Closeness
152 Citations2004Gráinne M. Fitzsimons, Aaron C. Kay
Current research demonstrates that manipulating pronoun use can lead people to perceive their own and other relationships as closer and higher in quality.
Journal of Speech Language and Hearing ResearchSensitive Periods Differentiate Processing of Open- and Closed-Class Words
138 Citations2001Christine Weber‐Fox, Helen J. Neville
The hypothesis that language subprocesses are differentially sensitive to the timing of second-language experience is consistent with the hypothesis that neural processes for language are heterogeneous in their adaptations to maturation and experience.
Psychology and HealthThe Role of Story-Making in Disclosure Writing: The Psychometrics of Narrative
136 Citations2002Anna Graybeal, Janel D. Sexton +1 more
Discourse ProcessesLanguage With Character: A Stratified Corpus Comparison of Individual Differences in E-Mail Communication
134 Citations2006Jon Oberlander, Alastair J. Gill
Journal of Psychosomatic ResearchPro-anorexics and recovering anorexics differ in their linguistic Internet self-presentation
126 Citations2006Elizabeth Lyons, Matthias R. Mehl +1 more
Linguistically, pro-anorexic and recovering anorexics engage in distinct psychological self-presentation styles and more research is needed to understand the clinical implications of these different linguistic styles.
Psychological ScienceThe Social Dynamics of a Cultural Upheaval
123 Citations2003Matthias R. Mehl, James W. Pennebaker
Analysis of the coded sound information showed that although participants did not change in their overall amount of interactions, they gradually shifted from group conversations to dyadic interactions, which has relevance for the understanding of stress and affiliation and normal psychological reactions to emergencies.
Basic and Applied Social PsychologyTrauma in Real Time: Talking and Avoiding Online Conversations About the Death of Princess Diana
116 Citations2002Lori D. Stone, James W. Pennebaker
Psychosomatic MedicineType A Behavior, Self-Involvement, and Cardiovascular Response
107 Citations1978Larry Scherwitz, Kent Berton +1 more
The possible role of self‐involvement in generating Type A behavior and cardiovascular response is discussed and the major difference between the two behavior types concerned self‐references, measured as the frequency of personal pronouns employed in speech.
Journal of Constructivist PsychologyCONTENT ANALYSIS OF PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS
95 Citations2002Guillem Feixas, Heinrich Geldschläger +1 more
Narrative InquiryDo good stories produce good health?
87 Citations2006Nairán Ramírez‐Esparza, James W. Pennebaker
Journal of Social and Clinical PsychologyThe Archival Anatomy of a Disaster: Media Coverage and Community-Wide Health Effects of the Texas A&M Bonfire Tragedy
87 Citations2003Eva‐Maria Gortner, James W. Pennebaker
Following the death of 12 Texas A&M students who died as part of an annual bonfire ritual, linguistic analyses of student newspapers and changes in student health center visits were analyzed and consistent with a social stages of coping model, the linguistic shifts covaried with increased rates of illness.
Personality and Individual DifferencesRating e-mail personality at zero acquaintance
72 Citations2005Alastair J. Gill, Jon Oberlander +1 more
Oxford University Press eBooksPolitical keywords : using language that uses us
63 Citations2005Roderick P. Hart
Archives of General PsychiatryVerbal Behavior and Schizophrenia
59 Citations1979Stanley D. Rosenberg
The data shed light on qualities that delineate some aspects of "bizarreness" in speech of schizophrenics, provide some insight into the diversity of postulated "defects" in schizophrenic thinking, and provide further understanding of the diagnostic process in schizophrenia.
Personality and Social Psychology BulletinThe Answer is in the Question: The Effect of Verb Causality on Locus of Explanation
53 Citations1995Giun R. Semm, Monica Rubinm +1 more
Sex RolesThe Language of Love: Sex, Sexual Orientation, and Language Use in Online Personal Advertisements
52 Citations2005Carla J. Groom, James W. Pennebaker
Analyses of Social Issues and Public PolicyLinguistic Markers of Psychological State through Media Interviews: John Kerry and John Edwards in 2004, Al Gore in 2000
50 Citations2005James W. Pennebaker, Richard B. Slatcher +1 more
The Social, Linguistic, and Health Consequences of Emotional Disclosure
46 Citations2003James W. Pennebaker
Social Studies of ScienceStyle and Substance in Psychology
41 Citations2002James Hartley, Éric Sotto +1 more
The results from four studies are reported separately to test the idea that influential articles in psychology will be more readable than less influential ones.
Journal of Abnormal PsychologyTestosterone as a Social Inhibitor: Two Case Studies of the Effect of Testosterone Treatment on Language.
38 Citations2004James W. Pennebaker, Carla J. Groom +2 more
Results showed that higher testosterone levels correlated with reduced use of words related to social connections, but language relating to anger, sexuality, and achievement was unrelated to testosterone levels.
Journal of Cross-Cultural PsychologyErratum to Kashima and Kashima (1998) and Reiteration
36 Citations2005Emiko S. Kashima, Yoshihisa Kashima
Heart and VesselsPersonality and language: the projection and perception of personality in computer-mediated communication
36 Citations2004Alastair J. Gill
Patients who underwent coronary catheterization by a distal radial approach could be performed without major bleeding or adverse events, and there was no radial artery occlusion at the site of the anatomical snuffbox or the forearm.
Political PsychologyEffects of Damage to Right‐Hemisphere Brain Structures on Spontaneous Emotional and Social Judgments
25 Citations2003Andrea S. Heberlein, Ralph Adolphs +2 more
LA PSICOLOGÍA DEL USO DE LAS PALABRAS: UN PROGRAMA DE COMPUTADORA QUE ANALIZA TEXTOS EN ESPAÑOL THE PSYCHOLOGY OF WORD USE: A COMPUTER PROGRAM THAT ANALYZES TEXTS IN SPANISH
23 Citations2007Nairán Ramírez‐Esparza, James W. P Ennebaker +2 more
The results showed high correlations across English and Spanish LIWC categories, and women in depression chat rooms used different categories of words than women in breast cancer chat rooms, and these differences were similar in chat rooms in English and in Spanish.
British Journal of Educational TechnologySpeaking versus typing: a case‐study of the effects of using voice‐recognition software on academic correspondence
21 Citations2003James Hartley, Éric Sotto +1 more
The overall results indicate that using the voice-recognition software had only marginal effects upon the written products, despite the fact that it had a strong effect on ES's experience of the writing process.
Journal of Technical Writing and CommunicationUsing New Technology to Assess the Academic Writing Styles of Male and Female Pairs and Individuals
20 Citations2003James Hartley, James W. Pennebaker +1 more
There was no real evidence to support the notion that writing in pairs would lead to better quality articles or that there would be differences between the readability of papers produced by men and women.
Applied Nursing ResearchConnecting with others in the midst of stressful upheaval on September 11, 2001
15 Citations2004Patricia Liehr, Matthias R. Mehl +2 more
Journal of Nursing ScholarshipExpressing Health Experience Through Embodied Language
15 Citations2002Patricia Liehr, Ryutaro Takahashi +4 more
This collaborative research between Japanese and American colleagues was a step toward deciphering shared values, which are important to understanding health for people who have lived through life-changing illness events.
Comparison of Independent Component Analysis and Singular Value Decomposition in Word Context Analysis
13 Citations2005Jaakko Väyrynen, Timo Honkela
A new measure for comparing the emergent and the traditionally defined features is introduced and it is shown that the ICA-based features correspond to the human intuitions much more closely than the SVD- based features not only in a visual inspection but also in a systematic and principled comparison.
Psychosomatic MedicineSelf-reference and coronary heart disease incidence in the Western Collaborative Group Study.
7 Citations1989Lewis E. Graham, Larry Scherwitz +1 more
A case‐control analysis of 750 structured interviews from the Western Collaborative Group Study indicated that those who incurred CHD did not self‐reference more frequently or densely than the CHD‐free control subjects, and the results question both the method for measuring self‐references and the hypothesis that self-referencing are associated with CHD.
The International Journal of Creativity and Problem SolvingThe Power of Words in Social, Clinical, and Personality Psychology
7 Citations2002James W. Pennebaker, Chang H. Lee
PSYCHOLOGIAIS WRITING AS MUCH PHONOLOGICAL AS SPEAKIG?: HOMOPHONE USAGE ACROSS SPEAKING AND WRITING
3 Citations2004Chang H. Lee, Kichun Nam +1 more
…